BASIC ENGLISH
AND GRAMMATICAL REFORM

by C. K. OGDEN
Director of the Orthological Institute

Supplement to The Basic News, July, 1937
THE ORTHOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
10 KING'S PARADE, CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND

CONTENTS

PAGE INTRODUCTORY	1
THE TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH	4
DIRECTIONAL THINKING	5
PROBLEMS OF STANDARDIZATION	7
SPELLING REFORM	8
ORTHOLOGICAL SYNTAX	10
WORD-MAGIC, LOGIC, AND GRAMMAR	12
BASIC IN EDUCATION	18
TRANSLATION AND REDUCTION	20
AN EXAMPLE OF VERB-ELIMINATION	24
SUMMARY	25

Free Downloads - Units 1 Through 30

Download free grammar exercises to accompany the instructor's manual http://www.englishonaroll.com/

http://www.iranianuk.com/article.php?id=3242

http://www.iranianuk.com/article.php?id=3243

http://www.irib.ir/amouzesh/p/geramerzaban/page00.htm

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JohnnyLing.shtml

http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/freeexercises.htm

http://www.english-the-easy-way.com/

http://www.education-world.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson334.shtml

Grammar: The study of how words and their component parts combine to form sentences; the system of rules implicit in a language, viewed as a mechanism for generating all sentences possible in that language.

A series of articles and lesson plans on different approaches to teaching English grammar

Little words BIG Grammar - Adrian Tennant	Page 1 - Introduction and lesson plan
Using the discovery technique for grammar teaching - Adrian Tennant	Page 1 - Introduction Page 2 - An example
Task-based grammar teaching - Lindsay Clandfield	Page 1 - Introduction Page 2 - Lesson plan
Teaching grammar using texts - Tim Bowen	Page 1 - Introduction

Grammar

• Countable/Uncountable Nouns 1
• "If" Sentences Quiz 1, by Dennis Oliver
• Irregular Verbs 1
• Learn vs. Teach Quiz
• Modal Quiz 1, by Dennis Oliver
• Modal Quiz 2, by Dennis Oliver
• Preposition Quiz 1
• Preposition Quiz 2
• Preposition Quiz 3, by Dennis Oliver
• Preposition Quiz 4, by Dennis Oliver
• Present Tense 1
• Simple Past and Past Progressive 1, by Dennis Oliver
• Simple Past and Present Perfect 1, by Dennis Oliver
• Subject-Verb Agreement 1
• Verb Tense Review, by Dennis Oliver
• Word Forms Quiz 1, by Dennis Oliver

In this article, we present an example of learning based on grammar rules. Then we explain why we think this way of learning is much less effective than input-based learning.

Example of learning by grammar rules

Here is an excerpt from a modern ESL textbook ("Workout Advanced" by Paul Radley and Kathy Burke, published by Nelson English Language Teaching). The textbook was used in an English class Tom attended at a language school in England.

Unit 4. Grammar: Adjectives

When two or more adjectives are used before a noun, the adjectives follow a certain order:

opinion adjectives: general/specific
descriptive adjectives: size/age/shape/colour/nationality/material

Example: They bought a lovely, stylish, large, old, rectangular, brown, English oak table.

Unit 4. Practice (next page)

Use the adjectives in the correct order before each noun to make noun phrases.

Example:
beach — white, sandy, soft --> a soft, white, sandy beach

hotel — modern, large, expensive
climate — sunny, warm, Mediterranean
water — blue, clear, clean
restaurant — international, open-air, clean
rooms — spacious, comfortable, twin-bedded

The textbook presents a grammar rule for ordering adjectives ("size/age/shape/colour/nationality/material"). Then it gives only two examples. After that, you are expected to do an exercise.

Obviously, you cannot do the exercise using your intuition (what intuition can you get from seeing only two examples?). The textbook wants you to use the grammar rule. You are supposed to classify the adjectives into one of the groups ("size", "age", etc.), and then put them in order according to the rule. In other words, you are supposed to:

1. recall the rule ("size - age - shape - color - nationality - material")
2. for every adjective, answer the question "Is it an adjective of size, age, shape, color, nationality, or material?"
3. order the adjectives according to the rule

Now imagine doing all these things whenever you're writing or saying a sentence with 2 or more adjectives. Can you guess how much time it would take you to build the sentence?

Is there another way? Yes, there is. You can learn by input. You can read a lot of sentences with adjectives and get a natural, intuitive knowledge of adjective order. Instead of memorizing the rule and using it to build sentences, you can get correct sentences into your head and your brain will imitate them. The "input way" is easier and it lets you speak and write faster.

Of course, learning by input is not effortless. You have to spend a lot of time reading and listening to English. However, if you learn e.g. by reading a book that you like, it can give you pleasure and motivation.

Grammar rules vs. input — summary

Learning with grammar rules has two important disadvantages:

• Memory effort. It is difficult to memorize a grammar rule. The process is highly artificial; it is like memorizing a poem. It is much easier to read some example sentences and let your brain do the rest.
• Time. You need a lot of time to use a grammar rule. You have to remember it, you have to see if it can be used in your sentence, then you have to build the sentence according to the rule. Writing a sentence with grammar rules is like solving a mathematical equation. If you use grammar rules often, you can't speak or write in English fluently.

Can grammar rules be useful?

Yes, they can. For example, if you don't hear (or read) some word or grammar pattern frequently, it may be hard to acquire a natural, intuitive knowledge of it. For example, it may be hard to acquire an intuitive knowledge of the future perfect tense (a grammar structure used e.g. in this sentence: "By 2050, life in Europe will have changed.") just by reading books in English, because the future perfect occurs relatively rarely in books.

If you want to use the future perfect in your own sentences, you can memorize a rule for it. The rule will tell you when to use the future perfect and how to use it correctly. In a similar way, you can memorize other rules or definitions of words which are used rarely.

So you could substitute grammar rules for intuition. The problem with this method is that you can't remember too many rules (memory limit). Also, it would slow you down if you had to use many rules when speaking or writing (time limit). Therefore, most of your knowledge must be intuitive (based on input).

Grammar rules may be useful for using rare words and grammar patterns, but we think there is a better way. You can build your intuition "the input way" for every rare grammar pattern. How? You can artificially increase the frequency with which you see that grammar pattern. For example, if you don't see the future perfect often, you can add 20 example sentences with the future perfect to your SuperMemo collection. SuperMemo will make you repeat the sentences regularly, and so will help you to build an intuitive knowledge of the future perfect.

Stop asking people to tell you grammar rules

Many learners have a strange habit. When somebody (e.g. a teacher) tells them the correct way to say something in English ("We say big red car.") or corrects their mistake ("You can't say red big car"), they like to ask "why?".

However, the question "why?" has no real answer. When asking the question, learners want to hear a grammar rule (e.g. "We say big red car because adjectives of size come before adjectives of color"). But the rule is not the reason why we don't say "red big car". The rule is only a description of native speakers' habits. It was invented by some linguist who simply noticed that native speakers never say "red big car" or "white small house".

In other words, it is not true that native speakers say "big red car" because they know the rule and follow it. It's the other way around. The size-color rule exists because native speakers say "big red car". Native speakers are the ones who create the language. Grammar rules only follow native speakers' habits.

We think that it doesn't make much sense to ask the question "why is that sentence correct, and not the other one?". The only good answer to that question would be "Because native speakers say that sentence, and not the other one.". Instead of wondering "why?", simply learn the correct way. You don't have to care that a linguist wrote a rule for it. Follow native speakers, not grammar rules.

Adjuncts

Adverbs of time, place, frequency, degree and manner, together with Adverbials (phrases that have a function similar to Adverbs), all of which modify the Verb in the Clause or Sentence are known as Adjuncts

Adverbials

Phrases that function like Adverbs are known as Adverbials.

Adverbs

An Adverb is a word that can change the meaning of all sorts of grammatical categories, including Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs and Nouns

There are a number of different types, such as Adverbs of time, place, frequency, degree and manner.

Articles

A and AN are the Indefinite Articles, used to show that a Countable Noun is Singular and doesn't refer to any particular example of that Noun.

THE is the Definite Article, used to refer to a specific example of a Noun either Singular or Plural.

As

AS can be an Adverb, a Conjunction and a Relative Pronoun.

Auxiliary Verbs

An Auxiliary Verb is used together with another Verb to make a Question, make it NEGATIVE, give EMPHASIS, show Tense or a combination of these.

BE, DO and HAVE are the Auxiliary Verbs.

Conjunctions 2

Conjunctions, like AND, AS, BECAUSE, BUT and LIKE, join up information in a Sentence or Clause.

Conjuncts

A Conjunct links or relates what is said in two sentences, like HOWEVER; THEREFORE and NEVERTHELESS. Conjuncts are members of the wider group known as Conjunctions.

Countable & Uncountable Nouns

A Countable Noun can be Singular or Plural.

An Uncountable Noun does not have a Plural form.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives indicate a specific Noun or noun group. The category can be divided into two sub-categories; Demonstrative Adjectives, which are used with the Noun they point to, and Demonstrative Pronouns, which replace the Noun as well as pointing to it.

NB THIS; THAT; THESE and THOSE are identical whether they are functioning as Pronouns or Adjectives.

Determiners

Articles, Numerals, Possessive Adjectives, Quantifiers and Demonstrative Adjectives are all Determiners, which means that they restrict a Noun to a single example or to an identifiable group.

Disjuncts

A Disjunct modifies a whole Sentence or Utterance by expressing the speaker's attitude, opinion or evaluation of what is being said. Disjuncts are members of the group known as Sentence (or Sentencial) Adverbs and Adverbials.

Ditransitive Verbs

Ditransitive Verbs can take a Direct Object and an Indirect Object.

Interrogative Adjectives

Question words, like WHAT and WHICH that accompany and ask for a Noun to be specified, identified or given a number are INTERROGATIVE Adjectives.

Interrogative Adverbs

Question words that affect the Verb in terms of concepts like TIME (WHEN), MANNER (HOW), REASON (WHY) or LOCATION (WHERE) are INTERROGATIVE Adverbs.

Interrogative Pronouns

Question words that act like Pronouns, like WHAT, WHICH, WHO and WHOM are called Interrogative Pronouns.

Intransitive Verbs do not take an Object

Only Transitive Verbs can have a Passive form.

Its & It's

IT'S is a contraction of either "it is" or "it has". (TAKES APOSTROPHE)

ITS shows possession. (NO APOSTROPHE)

Like

LIKE can be an Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, Noun, Pronoun or Verb.

Modal Verbs

A Modal Verb is used to express the speaker's ideas about such things as the possibility, intention, obligation and necessity of the action or state described by the Verb it accompanies.

CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, etc, are examples of Modal Verbs.

Monotransitive Verbs

MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS take a single Object.

Negative Pronouns

NO-ONE; NOBODY; NEITHER; NONE and NOTHING are the Negative Pronouns, which are used to replace a Noun or Noun Phrase and make it negative.

Noun Phrase

A Noun Phrase consists of a Noun together with any of the words that modify it, including Determiners and Adjectives

Numerals

Numerals are part of the family of Determiners and consist of Cardinal Numbers (one, two, three ...) and Ordinal Numbers (first, second...).

Parts of Speech- Alone

As an Adjective, ALONE is Predictive - it cannot come before a Noun.

It is also an Adverb - live ALONE, etc.

Parts of Speech- Because

BECAUSE can be either an Adverb or a Conjunction

Parts of Speech- But

BUT is a Conjunction, Preposition & Adverb

Parts of Speech- Few

FEW, FEWER and FEWEST can used an Adjective, Noun or Pronoun

Parts of Speech- How

HOW can be either an Adverb or a Noun

Parts of Speech- If

IF is a Conjunction (occasionally a Countable Noun used in the Plural = IFS)

Parts of Speech- Just

JUST can be an Adjective or an Adverb. As an Adjective, it means being fair and doing what ought to be done.

Parts of Speech- Little

LITTLE, LESS and LEAST can be used as Adjectives, Nouns andPronouns

Parts of Speech- Many

MANY can be an Adjective, Noun or Pronoun

Parts of Speech- Much

MUCH, MORE and MOST can be used as Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns & Adverbs

Parts of Speech- Nevertheless

NEVERTHELESS = Adjective & Conjunction

Parts of Speech- Since

SINCE can be an Adverb, a Conjunction or a Preposition

Parts of Speech- These & Those

THESE is the Plural of this and, likewise, it can be a Demonstrative Adjective or a Demonstrative Pronoun

THOSE is the Plural of that. It can also be a Demonstrative Adjective or a Demonstrative Pronoun

Parts of Speech- This & That

THIS can be a Demonstrative Adjective or a Demonstrative Pronoun

THAT can be an Adverb, Conjunction, Demonstrative Pronoun, Adjective, or a Pronoun.

Parts of Speech- What

WHAT can be an Adjective, Adverb or a Pronoun

Parts of Speech- Where

WHERE can be an Adverb, Conjunction, Noun or Pronoun

Parts of Speech- Which

WHICH can be either an Adjective or a Pronoun

Parts of Speech- While

WHILE can be a Conjunction, Noun or Verb.

Parts of Speech- Who

WHO can be either an Adjective or a Pronoun

Parts of Speech- Whom

WHOM can be either an Adjective or a Pronoun

Parts of Speech- Why

WHY - Adverb or Noun

Personal Pronouns

I; YOU; SHE; HE; IT; WE; and THEY are the Personal Pronouns that can act as the Subject of a Verb.

ME; YOU; HER; HIM; IT; US and THEM are the Personal Pronouns that can act as the Object of a Verb.

NB: YOU and IT do not change and HER can also be used as a Possessive Adjective.

Possessive Adjectives

MY; YOUR; HER; HIS; ITS; OUR and THEIR are the Possessive Adjectives that are used to show who owns something.

NB: HER is the same when used in the Personal Pronoun form and HIS and ITS can also act as Possessive Pronouns.

Possessive Pronouns

MINE; YOURS; HERS; HIS; ITS; OURS & THEIRS are Possessive Pronouns that show who owns something and replace the Noun itself.

NB: HIS and ITS are the same when they are acting as Possessive Adjectives.

Prepositions

Prepositions like IN, OF and ON link Nouns, Pronouns & Gerunds to other words.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that can replace or substitute a Noun or a Noun Phrase, inc. I; ME; MINE; MYSELF; SOME; ANY; NO; NOBODY; NO-ONE; NOTHING; THIS; THAT; THESE; THOSE; WHAT; WHICH; WHO and WHOM.

Quantifiers

Words that show how much of a Noun there is or how many examples of a Noun there are called Quantifiers, a category that includes Numerals and words like SOME and ANY; NONE; EITHER and NEITHER.

Reciprocal Pronouns

Reciprocal Pronouns show that an action works both ways:

James and Kate love EACH OTHER. (This means that James loves Kate and that Kate loves James)

Reflexive Pronouns

MYSELF; YOURSELF; HERSELF; HIMSELF; ITSELF; OURSELVES; YOURSELVES & THEMSELVES are the Pronouns used when the Subject and Object or complement of the Verb are the same.

NB: The second person (YOU) has either a Singular or Plural reference. THEMSELF and ONESELF are often used as an impersonal Singular reflexive pronoun when it isn't clear if the person referred to is male or female.

Relative Pronouns

Words used to introduce clauses in sentences, like THAT; WHICH; WHO; and WHOSE are Relative Pronouns.

So

SO can be used to emphasise an Adjective, Adverb or a combination of Adverb + Adjective.

So & Such 1

SO can be an Adverb, Conjunction or Pronoun.

SUCH can be an Adjective, Adverb or Pronoun

Some & Any 1

SOME and ANY can be Pronouns or Quantifiers.

Spell

SPELL can both regular (SPELL\SPELLED\SPELLED) and irregular (SPELL\SPELT\SPELT).

Such

SUCH can be used to emphasise a Noun (with or without an Article), or an Adjective + Noun.

Themself & Themselves

THEMSELF is used as an alternative to HIMSELF or HERSELF when the Gender is unknown or indeterminate. It is, therefore, Singular, which some people use as grounds to find fault with it as a word and call it wrong.

THEMSELVES is Plural.

They're, Their & There

THEY'RE = THEY ARE

THEIR = Possessive Adjective

THERE can be used as an Adverb or a Noun.

Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs can take an Object.