زبان انگلیسی  : اصول یادگیری تدریس ترجمه

Techniques of Sentence Combination

Discourse Markers in English Sentences

Akbar Mohammadi

Discourse Markers are used to combine clauses or to connect sentence elements.  Each discourse

 marker indicates a particular meaning relationship between two or more clauses.

Five types of DISCOURSE MARKERS are used in combining English sentences:

1.      COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS  

            2.      CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

3.      CONNECTORS (adverbials, conjunctive adverbs)

4.      SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

5.      PHRASE LINKERS (prepositions; or ADJ + PREP)

Sentences consist of COMPOUND and COMPLEX sentences:

Prepositions or Adjective + Preposition combinations introduce PHRASES.

1- COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (coord.conj.): informally known as the FANBOYS or BOYFANS

Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two INDEPENDENT clauses, which are set off by a comma.

      Independent clause 1  , coord.conj  independent clause 2       .

                S + V                                                           S + V

 Exp.:  We arrived late, so we waited in the hall.

                                          (coord.conj)

2- CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

These are pairs of connectors that function together to join words, phrases, and clauses (two parallel sentence elements of any kind or two complete sentence patterns).

Remember that the items that follow each correlative conjunction must be grammatically parallel to one another. Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

3- CONNECTORS (Adverbials, conjunctive adverbs)

Connectors are discourse markers that also join two INDEPENDENT clauses, but with a semicolon (;) or a period (.).  They can occur in three positions in a sentence: initial (beginning) position, medial (middle) position, and final (end) position.  Good writers/speakers use the position of discourse markers to give particular emphasis to the element that immediately precedes the connector.  They also make sure that they vary the position of the discourse markers to avoid monotony.  The punctuation is different, depending on the position of the connector.

A. INITIAL (BEGINNING) POSITION:

The connector is positioned at the beginning of the second clause.

 Independent clause 1  ; connector ,  independent clause 2  .

            S + V                                                   S + V

 Independent clause 1   .  Connector  ,  independent clause 2 .

            S + V                                                   S + V

Exp.:   We were late for the lecture; therefore, we waited in the hall.

            We were late for the lecture.  Therefore, we waited in the hall.

B. MEDIAL (MIDDLE) POSITION:

The connector is positioned in the middle of the second clause, usually between subject and verb.  In this case, the subject is emphasized and contrasted.
 

          Independent clause1  ;  S  , connector, V + C     .

Exp.:   George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories;

Harry, on the other hand, is more interested in sports and physical exercise.

C. FINAL (END) POSITION:

The connector is positioned at the end of the second clause.

      Independent clause1   ;  independent clause 2 , connector.

Exp.:     George spends his free time reading twentieth century American short stories;

             Harry is more interested in sports and physical exercise, on the other hand.

MEANING RELATIONSHIPS expressed by connectors:

4-  SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (SUB)

Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause.  There are two patterns (a. and b.) for positioning the dependent clause and therefore two patterns of punctuation.

A.         independent clause        SUB  dependent clause   . OR
                                    S + V                                                               S + V

B.        SUB               +          dependent       clause        ,                  independent               clause        .
                        SUB + S + V                             ,                                S + V

Exps.:  a. We waited in the hall because we arrived late for the lecture.

            b. Because we arrived late for the lecture, we waited in the hall.

NOTE : With because it is recommended to identify the REASON and the RESULT first in order to avoid                              a mix-up (incorrect meaning relationship):

            A.        RESULT           because + REASON .

            B.         Because + REASON     ,      RESULT       .

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are used to signal different MEANING RELATIONSHIPS.

Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

5- PHRASE LINKERS (Prepositions or ADJ + PREP combinations)

Phrase linkers are transitions that are often used at the beginning of a sentence.

            PHRASE LINKER     (NP)      ,   S  +  V  +  C  .

(item #1)        (item #2)

Exps.:

                        Due to our late arrival at the lecture, we had to wait in the hall.
                                                (NP)

 In contrast to western societies, eastern societies stress the importance of community.

                                    (item #1)                                  (item #2)

Before the work of Sigmund Freud, psychology was not considered an academic subject.
                                  (NP)

Sentence  Expansion

            Sentences are units of grammar made up of one or more clauses. Sentences may be expanded by adding one sentence to one or more other sentences. The product is called either a compound or a complex sentence. Sentences containing just one clause are called simple, and sentences containing more than one clause are called compound ( sentences with two simple sentences ) or complex ( sentences with two or more simple sentences ). Making compound or complex sentences is achieved through the use of  connecting words (Connecting devices), called conjunctions and connectors .

            Depending on their usage and functions, conjunctions are of three different kinds :

1- Coordinate conjunctions ,  2- Correlative conjunctions and  3- Subordinate conjunctions

1-  Coordinate conjunctions ( Coordinators ) : [ for-and-nor-but-or-yet-so ]

These conjunctions are used to join the structures ( parallel sentence elements - subjects, objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, NPs., VPs., Adj Ps., Adv Ps., Prep Ps. - and sentence patterns ) that are grammatically the same. Notice that the different coordinate conjunctions have distinct meanings :

Punctuation : When a coordinate conjunction joins two sentence patterns, it is preceded by a comma (,) .But a comma is not used when two equal sentence elements are connected .

Sentence pattern  (I)  ……..  ,  Coordinate conj..  +  Sentence pattern (II) .

And shows addition ,cause & effect , contrast and condition relationship :

She made the beds and washed the dishes. (addition)

He slipped and twisted his ankle. (cause & effect)

Water the flowers , and I’ll pay you extra money. ( condition =If….then )

Tom’s 15 and still sucks his thumb . ( contrast = despite this )

And performs the same function similar to that of a non-restrictive relative clause:

We have arrived at the hotel, and it is very comfortable.

We have arrived at the hotel, which is very comfortable.

But and Yet show contrast :

 He hadn’t eaten for days ,but / yet he looked strong and healthy.

Jerry has saved money all year, but / yet he does not have enough for his vacation .

Note:  But as a preposition cannot occur initially .

Everyone was tired but me. = Everyone but me was tired .

Or and Nor show contrast or alternative :

Are you going to the party ,or will you stay home ?

I do not write Arabic, nor / neither do I speak it very well . ( After  ‘nor’ and ‘neither’  the sentence takes the question word-order.)

Nor / neither and either are used in response to negative statements to show agreement :

A: I don’t like dark colours.     B: I don’t either .  //   Neither /Nor do I .

Or expresses a negative condition :

You had better put on your coat, or (else) you’ll catch a cold .This meaning can be expressed in the following ways:

 If you don’t put on your coat , you’ll catch a cold . = Unless you put on your coat , you’ll catch a cold .

You’d better put on your coat; otherwise, you’ll catch a cold .

Or is used to make our ideas clear ( Restating ):

He walked away with the book , or rather , he stole it.

Or is used to connect two objects ,adjectives complements ,adverbs of manner , prepositional phrases when the verb of the sentence is in the negative :

She has not done her reading assignment or writing assignment .

We haven’t been to Ahvaz or  Kerman .

He is not rich or young .

For and So show reason :

That student failed, for he was very ill this year.

The books were cheap, so I bought all of them .

So introduces a result :

I have been studying hard during the last semester, so I’m going to take a vacation in summer .

So and too are used to show positive agreement :

A: I am  tired.    B: I am too.  /  So am I .

Punctuation :   When a coordinate conjunction joins two sentence patterns, it is preceded by a comma (,) .

Sentence pattern (I) ….….. , Coordinate conj. + Sentence pattern (II) .

2-  Correlative Conjunctions (Correlatives ) :    not only…..…but           also      both…………and

                                                                                either……...….or          neither………nor

                                                                                                whether…………..or

These are conjunctions with two pairs. They are used to emphasize the combination of two ‘balanced’ structures. Correlatives are used to connect two parallel sentence elements of any kind or two complete sentence patterns.

Note:  both ….…and is usually used to connect only two similar sentence elements.

Punctuation : When a correlative conjunction joins two complete sentence patterns, a comma (,) is used after the first one. But a comma is not used when two equal sentence elements are connected .

Correlative conj (I) +  Sentence pattern (I) , Correlative conj (II) +  Sentence pattern (II) .

Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

A-  Parallel Sentence Elements :

---I will study either French or German as a second language.

---He neither smokes nor drinks.

---The typist is not only skilful but also intelligent.

---She is both an actress and a playwright .

---Both the governor and the mayor are defending the plan .

---You can still enjoy sport whether young or old .

B-  Complete Sentence Patterns :

---Either we can meet this afternoon , or we can discuss it at dinner .

---Neither do I know the boy , nor do I know the boy’s father.

---Not only did Mary wash the dishes , but also she ( but she also) cleaned the apartment .

---Whether he will accept my apology , or he will reject it remains to be seen .

3-  Subordinate Conjunctions( Subordinators) :

By means of subordination we join two sentence patterns together in such a way as to change one of them into a subordinate idea and to make it a grammatical part of the other sentence, forming what we call a complex sentence. When this happens ,the sentence that has been made subordinate is called a subordinate clause. There are two types of clauses - main clause ( or independent clause ) and subordinate clause ( or Dependent clause ) .A main clause has a subject and a verb and makes sense by itself. A subordinate clause also has a subject and a verb , but it does not make sense by it self . Sentences are reduced to the status of subordinate clauses by subordinators before them. In addition, more than two sentence patterns may be combined in this way .

Because international travel is easy and fast today , thousands of people travel outside their own countries .

            Adverb clause  (reason)              Main clause

When he went to the library , he found what he was looking for .

  Adverb clause (Time)                             Noun clause ( Object)

Here is the picture of the man  whose money was stolen .

            Main clause                      Adjective clause

The Coordination & Subordination Systems

The coordination & subordination systems allow us to combine sentences ( i.e., clauses ) in different ways to achieve different effects. All grammatical structures can be coordinated, but only clauses can be subordinated.

When two clauses are coordinated in a sentence, the information in each clause is understood to have equal weight and importance in the mind of the speaker or writer. This is because the information in each clause is believed to be new to the listener or reader. When one clause is subordinated to another, on the other hand, the two clauses are not equal in weight and importance. This is because the information in the subordinated clause is presumed to be known to the listener, whereas the information in the main clause is not. Look at the following examples :

    a) John had a cold.

 + b) He went to the beach.

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      c) John had a cold, but he went to the beach.

    d) Although John had a cold, he went to the beach.

 Clauses (a) & (b) have been combined using a coordinator (but) in sentence (c) and combined using a subordinator ( although ) in sentence (d).

As a result, sentence (c) shows that clauses (a) and (b) were equally important in the mind of the speaker, i.e., it was presumed that the listener knew neither that John had a cold nor that he went to the beach. A response to this sentence might be, " What a silly thing to do! " Sentence (d), on the other hand, shows that clause (a) was less important in the mind of the speaker than clause (b) because it was known to the listener that John had a cold but not that he went to the beach. A response to this sentence might be ,

" What a fool John is ! " 

            In formal academic writing, subordination tends to occur more frequently than coordination, but if the amount of coordination exceeds the amount of subordination, the writing appears childlike and unsophisticated.

            Coordination is simply the use of coordinating conjunctions, such as and & but, and conjunctive adverbs, such as in addition to and however.

Subordination is the use of adverbial clauses with their clause markers, such as when and although, adjective clauses with their clause markers, such as who and that.

Look at the following examples :

            a) The clouds gathered, but they did not bring rain.

b) The clouds gathered; however,  they did not bring rain.

c) The clouds that  gathered did not bring rain.

d)Although  the clouds gathered, they did not bring rain.

Note :         While coordination & subordination are concerned with relationship between clauses, it is also possible to show a "subordinate" relationship between a clause and a noun phrase. This is accomplished by means of complex prepositions, which are related to the subordinators in meaning but not in function. The difference between the two is that subordinators indicate what is and what is not presumed to be known to the hearer, while complex prepositions do not.

Look at the following examples :

a)      In spite of  ( Despite ) the fact that  there was a drought , the lawns were watered.

b) The lawns were watered in spite of  ( despite ) the drought

Sentence (a) is constructed with subordinators, while sentence (b) is constructed with complex prepositions that are related to the subordinators. In both sentences, the underlined structure indicates that what follows is contrary to the first part of the sentence. However, sentence (a) suggests that the hearer knew that there was a drought but not that the lawns were watered. Sentence (b) makes no such distinction.

Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

Adverbial Clauses of Contrast

When we want to make two points, and emphasize that one of them contrasts with the other, there are a number of different words and expressions that we can use. Probably the most common and simplest word to use is the conjunction but. It comes between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

The team was beaten, but Paul scored three goals.

I don't like most sweet food, but I love chocolate.                  

Contrast :  Specified ( Direct ) /  Generalized ( Indirect )

Contrast words indicate that the information in one clause is in contrast with the information in another. Contrast may be specified (direct ) or generalized ( indirect ).

Specified ( Direct ) Contrast :

            Specified contrast indicates a direct contrast in a specific category, which is often completely opposite to the information in other clause. Specified contrast is shown with the following coordinators , subordinators and complex prepositions :

Generalized ( Indirect ) Contrast :

Generalized contrast words indicate that the information in one clause contrasts in some manner with the information in another and that the information is usually surprising or unexpected. Generalized contrast is indicated with the following coordinators, subordinators and complex prepositions :

Notes                                                           Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

*Although  & Though

As conjunctions, although and though are generally interchangeable:

                        Although (or though) she smiled, she was angry.

Although John is a little homesick, he still plans to stay in France for at least a year.

Although is a conjunction, and can come either at the beginning of a sentence, or between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

            Although it was raining, they went on a picnic.

            They went on a picnic although it was raining.

Though can be used in exactly the same way, and is more common in informal speech:

                        Though it was raining, they went on a picnic.

                        They went on a picnic though it was raining.

Although usually occurs at the beginning of its clause (as in the preceding example), whereas though may occur elsewhere and is the more common term when used to link words or phrases, as in

                        wiser though poorer.

In certain constructions only though is acceptable:

                        Huge though (as) the building was, it wasn't sufficiently vast to hold the city library.

                        I eat most dairy products. I’m not keen on yoghurt, though.

Though can also be used as an adverb, to mean however.

                        Frogs, though, are amphibians and not reptiles.

                        "Strange place, isn't it?" "Yes. Very interesting, though."

                        Though dying of cancer, he painted every day.

Note : Don’t use but in sentences beginning with although, even though or while. Here is a common mistake:

                        Although Kelvin worked hard, but he failed the examination.

You can leave out the subject and the verb be in a contrast clause when the subject of the contrast clause and the main clause are the same (e.g. he was in the following sentence).

Though / Although [he was] hard working, Kelvin failed the examination.

*Even though & Even so

If we use even though in this way, the word even stresses that what follows is surprising( giving emphasis):

                        Even though he's almost ninety, he's entered the marathon.

Even though is a conjunction used to say that a fact doesn't make the rest of the sentence untrue.

Even though much of the power of the trade unions has been lost, their political influence should not be underestimated

Even so also means however  and comes at the beginning of the sentence:

                        They come from a very rich family. Even so, they're really mean with their money.

Even so is a prepositional phrase used to introduce a fact that is surprising in the light of what was just said.

                        I walked the stairs cautiously. Even so, I nearly fell twice.

                        There are a lot of spelling mistakes; even so ,it's quite a good essay.

*Even though & Even if

                        Even though Tom doesn’t know Spanish, I think he should visit Madrid.

                        Even if Tom doesn’t know Spanish, I think he should visit Madrid.

Even though meaning 'despite the fact that' indicates that the speaker knows that Tom doesn't speak Spanish.

Even if meaning 'whether or not' shows that the speaker doesn’t know definitely whether Tom speaks Spanish or not.

*However & Nevertheless

However and nevertheless emphasize the fact that the second thing that you are saying contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is more formal.

                        The children had a lovely day. However, they arrived home very sun burnt.

The government vowed to reduce inflation. Nevertheless, one year later, the rate has increased by %3.

                        However naive(simple-easy to deceive-gullible) she may be, she will find out the truth.

            John had lived in the village for 20 years .Nevertheless, the locals still consider him an outsider.

*While  & Whereas

                        She hates these animals ,while people in the countryside live with them.

In advance countries women enjoy more social rights whereas women in less developed countries are not supported by law.

                        Whereas large cities are mostly polluted, most people prefer them to small cities.

                        While Robert is friendly with everyone, his brother makes very few friends.

*Yet, Still & In spite of this

Yet, still and in spite of this all emphasize that something is surprising, considering what has already been said:             He sold the house , yet (he) can't help regretting it.

United were four goals down at halftime, and were still able to win the game.

He claims that he's a vegetarian(herbivore /plant-eating animal). In spite of this, he does enjoy a bit of ham every now and again.

*In spite of & Despite

In spite of can also be used as a preposition. In spite of + noun is very similar to although + clause:

He looks very fit in spite of his age (=although he's very old)

He went to the gym in spite of his broken leg (=although he had a broken leg)

In spite of can be followed by an -ing form.

In spite of not being able to swim, she survived for almost an hour in the sea.

 Conservative MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.

We can also use despite in the same way as in spite of in more formal English:

He was considered for the position despite his lack of experience.

Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.

In spite of & Despite can also be followed by That-clause.

They ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into trouble.

Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically possible at this moment.

Q1 - She went out ____ the rain.

a. Although                 b. despite                     c. Either could be used here.

Q2 - She went out ____ it was raining.

a. Although                 b. despite                     c. Either could be used here.

Q3 - She went out ____ the fact that it was raining.

a. Although                 b. despite                     c. Either could be used here.

Q4 - ____ she didn't like it, I enjoyed it a lot.

a. Though                    b. Although                 c. Either could be used here.

Q5 - It was good, ____ expensive.

a. Though                    b. despite                     c. Either could be used here.

Q6 - I was late. ____, the others were all on time.

A. Although                b. However                 c. Despite                    d. While

Q7 - ____ I was late, the others were all on time.

a. Although                 b. However                 c. Despite                    d. Yet 

Q8 - They managed it ____ I wasn't there.

a. Although                 b. despite                     c. however                   d. in spite of

Q9 - They managed it ____ the fact that I wasn't there.

a. Although                 b. however                  c. despite                     d. however

Q10 - ____ tired, he managed to finish it on time.

a. Though                    b. Despite                    c. Either could be used here.

Q11 - ____ hard she tried, she still couldn't manage it.

a. However                  b. Despite                    c. Though                    d. Although

Q12 - 'You did it!'

a. 'I didn't enjoy it much, though.'                  b. 'I didn't enjoy it much, although.'

Q13 - ____ John was far behind in the beginning, he finished the race in first place.

a. Despite                    b. In spite of                c. Although                 d. Besides

Q14- Karen is rich; ___, her cousin Kate is poor.
a. therefore                  b. although                  c. otherwise                 d. however

Q15- You'd better take a taxi. ___, you'll arrive late.
a. Consequently          b. Otherwise                c. Furthermore             d. Whereas

Q16- I enjoy reading this new magazine. ___, it has good articles.
a. Moreover                 b. Nevertheless            c. However                  d. Though

Q17-  Jack wasn't tired. ___, he took a nap.
a. Otherwise                b. Hence                      c. Nevertheless            d. While

Q18- Phil was not thirsty; ___, he drank five glasses of water.
a. although                  b. moreover                 c. furthermore                         d. however

Q19- The kids didn't study. ___, they failed the course.
a. Therefore                 b. Nonetheless             c. Otherwise                d. Despite

Q20- The weather was terrible. ___, we decided to delay our trip.
a. Furthermore             b. Besides                    c. Therefore                 d. Whereas

Q21- You must buy the tickets; ___, we won't be able to see that play.
a. otherwise                 b. although                  c. besides                     d. therefore

Q22- The neighborhood isn't very interesting. I like the house, ___.
a. moreover                 b. though                     c. thus                          d. although

Q23- We live in the same building; ___, we hardly see each other.
a. however                   b. therefore                  c. furthermore             d. while

Q24- He didn't earn enough money. ___, his wife decided to get a job.
a. Moreover                 b. Therefore                 c. Although                 d. Otherwise

Q25- That house isn't big enough for us, and ___, it's too expensive.
a. furthermore             b. hence                       c. although                  d. on the contrary

Q26- We have plenty of money and workers; ___, we aren't sure  to finish the house remodeling soon.
a. nevertheless             b. unless                      c. thus                          d. in spite of the fact that

Q27- She's extremely rich; ___, she's not snobbish(arrogant).
a. hence                       b. however                  c. otherwise                 d. while

Q28- It was a windy and rainy night. ___, I decided to go out.
a. However                  b. Otherwise                c. Hence                      d. Despite

Q29- Some people really enjoy swimming, ___others are afraid of water..

 a. whereas                  b. otherwise                 c. despite                     d. therefore
Q30- She's snobbish. ___, people like her.

a. Yet                          b. Although                 c. However                  d. Either a or c
Q31- ___the damage to the spacecraft, the astronauts got back to Earth safely.

a. Even though            b. However                 c. Despite                    d. While
Q32- It was raining hard ___ we left the office.
a. where                       b. when                       c. although                  d. whereas

Q33- He must be rich, ___ he spends a lot of money on gifts for his friends.
a. but                           b. for                           c. in order to                d. though

Q38- I understand your point of view. ___, I don't agree with it.

a. Although                 b. However                 c. While                       d. In spite of

Q39- Bob continued to smoke nearly three packs of cigarettes a day___his doctor's warning.

a. in contrast                b. though                     c. however                   d. in spite of

Q40- ___the increase in man's knowledge of himself and the universe, there are still mysteries unknown to him.              a. Although                 b. Whereas                  c. Despite                    d. However

Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

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Join the following sentences using the words in brackets.

1- Children have the right to have a basic education.

Many of them are robbed of it. ( While )

2- Child labor is increasing in developing countries.

It is decreasing in developed countries.      ( Whereas )

3- I had never seen him before.

I recognized him from a photograph. ( Although )

4- He decided to accept the job.

The salary was low.         ( Even though )

5- He was a computer engineer.

He didn't know how to fix the computer.       ( Though )

http://www.onestopenglish.com

http://www.rewardenglish.com

http://www.english-to-go.com

http://www.efltasks.net

http://www.englishlearner.com

http://grammar.englishclub.com/conjunctions-coordinating.htm

http://grammar.englishclub.com/conjunctions-subordinating.htm

http://www.wikipedia.com

http://www.usingenglish.com/handouts/89.html

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Larsen-Freeman, D. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

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McKay, I. (1996). Grammar strand 1.Series editors:Oxford,R.and Scarcella, R.Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Collected & Developed by : A. Mohammadi

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